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Caslon Language Education Index

A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, J, K, L, M, N, O, P, Q, R, S, T, U, V, W, X, Y, Z

calco (calque)

• Phrase copied from one language and used in the other, retaining the original meaning; similar to linguistic borrowing. Teaching for Biliteracy by Karen Beeman and Cheryl Urow

Canadian immersion programs

• Bilingual programs for majority language speakers in which initial instruction is in the second language and the first language is introduced later. Foundations for Multilingualism in Education by Ester de Jong

Castañeda v. Pickard

• 1982 Supreme Court ruling that developed a three-pronged test to determine “appropriate action” to meet the needs of ELLs: expert base, resource allocation, and program outcomes. Foundations for Multilingualism in Education by Ester de Jong

choral reading

• A method that involves students and teacher reading aloud in unison. Biliteracy from the Start by Kathy Escamilla, Susan Hopewell, Sandra Butvilofsky, Wendy Sparrow, Lucinda Soltero-González, Olivia Ruiz-Figueroa, and Manuel Escamilla

circular discourse pattern

• Communication style often associated with Spanish that involves the use of multiple words and details to get to the point indirectly. Contrasts with linear discourse pattern. Teaching for Biliteracy by Karen Beeman and Cheryl Urow

circumstantial bilingualism

• Acquisition context where becoming bilingual is not a choice but a necessity for survival (also folk bilingualism). Foundations for Multilingualism in Education by Ester de Jong

Civil Rights Act (1974)

• Provides for nondiscrimination in public spaces, including schools. Foundations for Multilingualism in Education by Ester de Jong

clustering

• The practice of locating specific groups of ELLs into particular buildings or classrooms to facilitate a particular program approach. Implementing Effective Instruction for English Language Learners by Suzanne Wagner and Tamara King

code-switching

• Use by a bilingual person of both languages in conversation, usually in a social context where the mixing of languages is appropriate (e.g., "Llegaste tarde" again). Phrases that include code-switching follow grammar and phonological rules. Teaching for Biliteracy by Karen Beeman and Cheryl Urow

• The use of two grammatical systems within the same linguistic exchange; can occur within a phrase or sentence (intrasentential code-switching) and across phrases or sentences (intersentential code-switching); serves multiple functions in bilingual or multilingual conversation or text. Foundations for Multilingualism in Education by Ester de Jong

• The alternation of languages within one linguistic context. This may take place within sentences (intrasententially) or in alternating sentences (intersententially). It is rule-governed behavior that requires a high degree of understanding of each of the languages being inserted into the communication. Biliteracy from the Start by Kathy Escamilla, Susan Hopewell, Sandra Butvilofsky, Wendy Sparrow, Lucinda Soltero-González, Olivia Ruiz-Figueroa, and Manuel Escamilla

• Switching back and forth between language codes that are regarded as separate and autonomous. It considers language only from an external perspective that looks at bilinguals’ language behavior as if they were two monolinguals in one. The Translanguaging Classroom by Ofelia García, Susana Ibarra Johnson, and Kate Seltzer

• The process of alternating the use of two languages during the same conversational event. Although language learners may code switch when they don’t know a word in their second language, code switching is more common among highly proficient bilingual speakers. Special Education Considerations for English Language Learners, second edition by Else Hamayan, Barbara Marler, Cristina Sánchez-López, and Jack Damico

cognate(s)

• Words that emanate from the same root and have similar meanings, spellings, and pronunciations. Spanish and English share between 10,000 and 15,000 cognates in the area of academic language (e.g., photosynthesis–fotosíntesis; energy–energía; electricity–electricidad).Teaching for Biliteracy by Karen Beeman and Cheryl Urow

• A word that is related to a word in another language (e.g., observe in English to observar in Spanish). Cognates have a common origin and thus are similar or identical in meaning and often in spelling. Teaching Adolescent English Language Learners by Nancy Cloud, Judah Lakin, Erin Leininger, Laura Maxwell

• Words from two languages that have similar sounds and meanings. Foundations for Multilingualism in Education by Ester de Jong

• Words in different languages that share an etymological root resulting in similar spelling, meaning, and pronunciation. Biliteracy from the Start by Kathy Escamilla, Susan Hopewell, Sandra Butvilofsky, Wendy Sparrow, Lucinda Soltero-González, Olivia Ruiz-Figueroa, and Manuel Escamilla

• Pairs of words in two etymologically related languages that have similar meanings and sound very similar, such as elephant and elefante. Showing young dual language learners (DLLs) the connections between cognates in their home language and English is a successful strategy to help them develop their English language skills. Young Dual Language Learners by Karen N. Nemeth

• Words that are similar in two languages because they come from the same root (e.g., education in English and educación in Spanish). Foundations for Teaching English Language Learners, third edition by Wayne E. Wright

• Words that have a shared origin and are often spelled similarly across languages (English, and usually Latin or Greek in the case of math). They can be useful for ELLs in their development of lexical knowledge. However, these cousin words must be taught explicitly, otherwise these “clues” may, to use a common English idiom, “be Greek to them.” From 5.14 (Hansen-Thomas) in Common Core, Bilingual and English Language Learners edited by Guadalupe Valdés, Kate Menken, and Mariana Castro

cognitive academic language proficiency (CALP)

• A term coined by Jim Cummins that refers to the type of language proficiency that is required to achieve academically. CALP is both context reduced (there is little support in the learning context to facilitate understanding) and cognitively demanding (the concepts are challenging for the learner to grasp). Research has shown that it can take four to nine years to acquire CALP (see BICS). Teaching Adolescent English Language Learners by Nancy Cloud, Judah Lakin, Erin Leininger, Laura Maxwell

• The second stage of the course of language development for English language learners/emergent bilinguals as explained by Cummins (1981). It is preceded by basic interpersonal communicative skills (BICS). This formulation was very helpful in alerting educators to the possibility that second language learners who sounded fluent might still struggle with many language tasks. Nonetheless, it was widely unrecognized that the BICS–CALP sequence is neither universal nor inevitable. From 2.4 (Snow) in Common Core, Bilingual and English Language Learners edited by Guadalupe Valdés, Kate Menken, and Mariana Castro

cognitive approaches

• Approaches to language learning and teaching focused on the cognitive processes in the brain of the learner. Foundations for Teaching English Language Learners, third edition by Wayne E. Wright

coherence

• The clarity about the structure and content of collaboration. A schedule for collaboration may be well conceived and staggered, but intentional affirmation about each teacher’s expertise is a necessary condition for coherence. Its merit is the improvement of each teacher’s instruction and it is regarded as an authentic means of professional development. From 6.2 (Morita-Mullaney) in Common Core, Bilingual and English Language Learners edited by Guadalupe Valdés, Kate Menken, and Mariana Castro

collaboration

• Sharing accountability for ELLs’ academic achievement and English language development. Often developed as a teacher-driven initiative it can take many forms, from co-planning to co-teaching. A formal collaborative process, including a collective commitment from administrators, teachers, and parents, can help ensure success and sustainability (Horwitz et al., 2009). From 6.2 (Downs) in Common Core, Bilingual and English Language Learners edited by Guadalupe Valdés, Kate Menken, and Mariana Castro

collaborative inquiry

• A process of high-level constituent engagement in the presence of high-quality data. From 4.1 (Lawrence and Darnell) in Common Core, Bilingual and English Language Learners edited by Guadalupe Valdés, Kate Menken, and Mariana Castro

collaborative reading

• A reading approach wherein the teacher creates opportunities for children to read with peers and monitors their work for the purpose supporting a deeper understanding of the text. Biliteracy from the Start by Kathy Escamilla, Susan Hopewell, Sandra Butvilofsky, Wendy Sparrow, Lucinda Soltero-González, Olivia Ruiz-Figueroa, and Manuel Escamilla

collaborative writing

• An approach to teaching writing in which children write with their peers and the teacher monitors their work, providing further assistance as needed. It encourages greater student involvement in the actual encoding, revising, editing and publishing processes. It is also an opportunity for students to talk about what they intend to write. Biliteracy from the Start by [Kathy Escamilla, Susan Hopewell, Sandra Butvilofsky, Wendy Sparrow, Lucinda Soltero-González, Olivia Ruiz-Figueroa, and Manuel Escamilla

collocations

• Groups of words that appear together frequently. From 5.14 (Hansen-Thomas) in Common Core, Bilingual and English Language Learners edited by Guadalupe Valdés, Kate Menken, and Mariana Castro

common assessments

• Student assessments that are used in more than one classroom. Common assessments are generally developed collaboratively by a team of teachers responsible for the same curriculum or grade level. The teachers implement these common assessments in their classrooms and mutually agree on how they will report and use the data. Implementing Effective Instruction for English Language Learners by Suzanne Wagner and Tamara King

Common Core State Standards (CCSS)

• New “next generation” college and career-readiness standards in English language arts and mathematics developed by a coalition of states that have been adopted by nearly all states. Foundations for Teaching English Language Learners, third edition by Wayne E. Wright

common measures

• See standard measures.

common underlying proficiency (CUP)

• A model developed by Jim Cummins that stresses the inter-relatedness of the two language systems of bilinguals in the brain (see also think-tank model). Foundations for Multilingualism in Education by Ester de Jong

• Within a model of language abilities, the deepest level of human processing attribute or capacity that gives rise to all cognitive and linguistic abilities within an individual, regardless of the language(s) used. This proposed attribute accounts for the fact that knowledge or skills that have been learned in one language may readily transfer to the second language. Special Education Considerations for English Language Learners, second edition by Else Hamayan, Barbara Marler, Cristina Sánchez-López, and Jack Damico

communicative competence

• Ability to use language apporpriately, according to context. Foundations for Multilingualism in Education by Ester de Jong

• The ability to use a language to communicate effectively and appropriately with other speakers of that language. Includes grammatical, discourse, sociolinguistic, and strategic competence. Foundations for Teaching English Language Learners, third edition by Wayne E. Wright

communicative function

• The purposes for which language is used. Includes three broad functions: communication (the transmission of information), integration (expression of affiliation and belonging to a particular social group), and expression (the display of individual feelings, ideas, and personality). Examples include asking for or giving information, describing past actions, expressing feelings, and expressing regret. Teaching Adolescent English Language Learners by Nancy Cloud, Judah Lakin, Erin Leininger, Laura Maxwell

communicative language teaching (CLT)

• Language teaching approaches, methods, strategies, and techniques that focus on helping students develop communicative competence. Foundations for Teaching English Language Learners, third edition by Wayne E. Wright

community-based language schools

• Classes in the minority language organized by the ethnic minority community (see also complementary schools). Foundations for Multilingualism in Education by Ester de Jong

comparative analysis

• The systematic study of a language pair to identify its structural, syntactical, and semantic differences and similarities. The Literacy Club: Effective Instruction and Intervention for Linguistically Diverse Learners by Kathryn Henn-Reinke and Xee Yang

comprehensible input

• Language input provided in the classroom in way that is easier for DLL students to understand. This includes the intentional choice of familiar words along with scaffolding cues, such as visual or gestural supports, for understanding new words. Young Dual Language Learners by Karen N. Nemeth

• A term coined by Krashen (1985) that describes the scaffolding process in which teachers explicitly adjust their speech and use instructional supports so that new information is understood. ESL teachers implement comprehensible input by explaining concepts and academic tasks clearly. They use speech appropriate for students’ language proficiency (slower rate, gestures, simple sentences) without using slang or idioms. They use visuals, graphic organizers, word sorts, word maps, and Venn diagrams to teach vocabulary words and support instruction throughout the lessons. Implementing Effective Instruction for English Language Learners by Suzanne Wagner and Tamara King

• Oral or written language that is slightly above a second language learner’s current level of proficiency in the second language and thus provides linguistic input that leads to second language acquisition. Represented by the formula i + 1, where i is the current level of proficiency, and +1 is input slightly above this level. Foundations for Teaching English Language Learners, third edition by Wayne E. Wright

comprehensible output

• Oral or written language produced by a second language speaker that is comprehensible to the individual or individuals with whom he or she is communicating. Second language learners’ need to produce comprehensible output pushes them to pay attention to gaps in their proficiency and thus may prompt them to notice more in the input and motivate them to learn the language they need to express their intended meanings. Foundations for Teaching English Language Learners, third edition by Wayne E. Wright

comprehensive language education programs

• Instructional programs for ELLs that have been designed by a team of educators who take into consideration the literacy, academic, and English language needs of the district’s ELL student populations. ESL, literacy, and content-area instruction are taught by certified ESL and bilingual teachers and mainstream teachers who have substantial training in sheltered instruction methods. Implementing Effective Instruction for English Language Learners by Suzanne Wagner and Tamara King

concept attainment

• Instructional strategy in which students are provided with a series of appropriate and inappropriate examples of a new concept. Students analyze these appropriate and inappropriate examples to formulate a definition of the concept (Bruner, Goodnow, & Austin, 1956). Teaching for Biliteracy by Karen Beeman and Cheryl Urow

concepts of print

• Emergent literacy skills for young children that reflect basic knowledge about how print functions in text. The Literacy Club: Effective Instruction and Intervention for Linguistically Diverse Learners by Kathryn Henn-Reinke and Xee Yang

• Refers to such reading-related issues as understanding the differences between letters and words and words and spaces; knowing where to start reading and how to do a return sweep to continue reading the next line; and understanding the basic features of a book, such as title, front and back cover, and even how to hold it properly. Foundations for Teaching English Language Learners, third edition by Wayne E. Wright

concurrent translation

• A method of teaching in which every statement the teacher makes is directly translated into a second language. Research has concluded definitively that it is a poor method because it teaches students that they only need to pay attention when information is offered in their more proficient language. Biliteracy from the Start by Kathy Escamilla, Susan Hopewell, Sandra Butvilofsky, Wendy Sparrow, Lucinda Soltero-González, Olivia Ruiz-Figueroa, and Manuel Escamilla

• Providing line-by-line translation of teacher instruction or texts into the students’ home language. Considered a poor use of the home language because it removes the need for students to attend to the second language and thus interferes with second language acquisition. Foundations for Teaching English Language Learners, third edition by Wayne E. Wright

connecting language environments

• Within the Literacy Squared lesson plan template (via genre, theme, literacy objectives, or bilingual texts), students capitalize on their resources in one language to help them understand in the other. Biliteracy from the Start by Kathy Escamilla, Susan Hopewell, Sandra Butvilofsky, Wendy Sparrow, Lucinda Soltero-González, Olivia Ruiz-Figueroa, and Manuel Escamilla

consultation method

• An alternative to push-in or pull-out services, in which an English as a second language (ESL) teacher provides consultative support to the classroom teacher but does not provide direct services to a particular child. This method is used in some early childhood programs, particularly at the preschool level. The ESL teacher assists in assessing the child’s language support needs and collaborates with the classroom teacher to plan the teaching strategies to meet the child’s needs. Supports are not provided in isolated periods of direct service, which means they can be embedded in the child’s school day, all day, every day, by the classroom teacher and any other specialists who might work with that child. Compare to pull-out supports/instructions/methods and push-in supports/instructions/methods. Young Dual Language Learners by Karen N. Nemeth

content allocation

• Language in which each academic subject will be taught, by grade level, in a bilingual or dual language program. Teaching for Biliteracy by Karen Beeman and Cheryl Urow

content-area journal

• Place for students to respond in writing to the content they are learning. The focus is on using writing to learn. Teaching for Biliteracy by Karen Beeman and Cheryl Urow

content-based instruction (CBI)

• Language instruction in which English language development is the goal. The big ideas of the content and the requisite terminology of a particular topic are the focus of the language instruction that is designed to reach English language development standards. In content-based ESL, teachers use the big ideas of content topics in various content areas (e.g., science, social studies, math, language arts) as a vehicle to learn academic language in English. To make second language instruction comprehensible, they implement multiple vocabulary-building strategies and use graphic, sensory, and interactive supports to differentiate instruction and assessment according to the ELLs’ English proficiency levels. The origins of content-based ESL methodology, sheltered instruction, and sheltered strategies are based on Krashen’s comprehensible input theory. Implementing Effective Instruction for English Language Learners by Suzanne Wagner and Tamara King

• An approach to second language instruction in which content-area subjects and topics are used as the basis of instruction. Foundations for Teaching English Language Learners, third edition by Wayne E. Wright

contextual information

• Background information on students and their prior educational experiences that help frame the interpretation of data. Assessment and Accountability in Language Education Programs by Margo Gottlieb and Diep Nguyen

continua of biliteracy model

• Framework developed by Nancy Hornberger to capture bilingual proficiency (oral-written; receptive-productive) as it is influenced by medium, context, and content. Foundations for Multilingualism in Education by Ester de Jong

• A theoretical model conceived by Hornberger (2003) that posits an L1/L2 continuum in which bilingual learning is maximized when students can draw from all their existing language skills in two languages. The Translanguaging Classroom by Ofelia García, Susana Ibarra Johnson, and Kate Seltzer

continuous progress monitoring

• A scientific process to assess students’ academic performance, quantify rate of improvement or responsiveness to instruction, and evaluate the effectiveness of instruction. The Literacy Club: Effective Instruction and Intervention for Linguistically Diverse Learners by Kathryn Henn-Reinke and Xee Yang

continuum of services framework

• A framework for assessing the learning challenges of English language learners, identifying appropriate systemic and specific interventions to address those challenges, and monitoring the English language learner’s response to those interventions. This approach advocates descriptive analysis before explanatory analysis and the immediate provision of services independent of a formal categorization of the student as having a special education need. Special Education Considerations for English Language Learners by Else Hamayan, Barbara Marler, Cristina Sánchez-López, and Jack Damico

contrastive analysis

• Practice in which bilinguals compare and contrast specific areas of their languages. Areas for contrastive analysis include phonology, morphology, syntax and grammar, and pragmatics. Teaching for Biliteracy by Karen Beeman and Cheryl Urow

convergent biliterate model of language and literacy

• A model of biliteracy where the interaction with a written text follows the language of the text but where minority literacy practices are calqued (copied) on majority literacy practices. The Translanguaging Classroom by Ofelia García, Susana Ibarra Johnson, and Kate Seltzer

convergent monoliterate model of language and literacy

• A model of biliteracy where the text is only in the dominant language but the interactions around the text can occur using the minority language. The Translanguaging Classroom by Ofelia García, Susana Ibarra Johnson, and Kate Seltzer

conversational fluency/conversational language proficiency

• See BICS. Teaching Adolescent English Language Learners by Nancy Cloud, Judah Lakin, Erin Leininger, Laura Maxwell

• The type of English that is acquired through everyday social interaction. It generally takes English language learners approximately one to two years to acquire conversational fluency. Contrast academic language proficiency. Cummins used the term basic interpersonal communication skills (BICS) to refer to this concept in his earlier work. English Language Learners at School, second edition by Else Hamayan and Rebecca Field

• The highly contextualized language productions used during everyday conversation in face-to-face interaction, also known as social language. According to research, it generally takes one to three years for English language learners to develop social language, while it takes much longer to develop the academic language necessary for school success. Special Education Considerations for English Language Learners, second edition by Else Hamayan, Barbara Marler, Cristina Sánchez-López, and Jack Damico

• The level of informal fluency in a language that is sufficient to support conversations and informal interactions, but is not quite at the level needed for full participation in academic learning—also known as playground fluency. Compare to Academic fluency. Young Dual Language Learners by Karen N. Nemeth

cooperative learning

• A process in which small groups of students collaborate and interact to accomplish a specific learning task or activity. Foundations for Teaching English Language Learners, third edition by Wayne E. Wright

corpus planning

• Language policy activities that focus on the language system itself (e.g., alphabetization). Foundations for Multilingualism in Education by Ester de Jong

corriente

• The Spanish word for current, used here to indicate different and fluid language and cultural practices that flow through classrooms, even when invisible. The Translanguaging Classroom by Ofelia García, Susana Ibarra Johnson, and Kate Seltzer

criterion-referenced measures

• A form of assessment or testing based on established criteria, such as standards, rather than ranking based on the performance of students. Assessment and Accountability in Language Education Programs by Margo Gottlieb and Diep Nguyen

criterion-referenced test

• Test designed to measure the degree to which students have mastered tested content. Foundations for Teaching English Language Learners, third edition by Wayne E. Wright

critical metalinguistic awareness

• Refers to the ability to consciously reflect on the nature of language. The Translanguaging Classroom by [Ofelia García, Susana Ibarra Johnson, and Kate Seltzer

critical thinking skills

• The ability to make reasoned judgments that are logical and well thought out. The Literacy Club: Effective Instruction and Intervention for Linguistically Diverse Learners by Kathryn Henn-Reinke and Xee Yang

cross-cultural competence

• A goal of language education programs whereby students are able to comfortably interact and negotiate in various cultural settings and norms. Assessment and Accountability in Language Education Programs by Margo Gottlieb and Diep Nguyen

cross-language connections

• The ability to use one language to analyze and understand a second language. Cross-language connections enable children to develop metacognitive abilities and knowledge about their two languages and how they are the same and different. Cross-language connections are bidirectional. This project uses two types of cross-language connections. The first refers to specific methods that the model has adapted from Mexico and modified for use in U.S. English/Spanish literacy programs. The second focuses on teaching children the metacognitive linguistic skills of cross-language expression in reading and writing. Biliteracy from the Start by Kathy Escamilla, Susan Hopewell, Sandra Butvilofsky, Wendy Sparrow, Lucinda Soltero-González, Olivia Ruiz-Figueroa, and Manuel Escamilla

cross-linguistic transfer

• Application of a skill or concept learned in one language to a second language. Teaching for Biliteracy by Karen Beeman and Cheryl Urow

cross-sectional data

• The comparison of the same type of information on different groups of students from year to year, such as examining the achievement of 3rd graders. Assessment and Accountability in Language Education Programs by Margo Gottlieb and Diep Nguyen

crosswalks

• Ready-made channels for content and language educators to begin to develop a common language and exchange instructional assessment strategies. The primary crosswalk between content and language development standards is the use of academic language to promote learning. From 6.2 (Hilliard and Gottlieb) in Common Core, Bilingual and English Language Learners edited by Guadalupe Valdés, Kate Menken, and Mariana Castro

cultural bias

• Occurs when test items assume background knowledge that is embedded in specific cultural experiences. Foundations for Multilingualism in Education by Ester de Jong

cultural competence

• The ability of educators to successfully teach students who come from cultures other than their own. Cultural competence entails developing certain personal and interpersonal awareness and sensitivities, developing certain bodies of cultural knowledge, and mastering a set of skills that, taken together, underlie effective cross-cultural teaching (Diller & Moule, 2005). Implementing Effective Instruction for English Language Learners by Suzanne Wagner and Tamara King

cultural distance

• The degree of emotional or psychological closeness felt between members of two cultural groups, usually because their values and ways of doing things are similar. It refers to one’s willingness to associate with members of another group because of the degree of affinity felt. Teaching Adolescent English Language Learners by Nancy Cloud, Judah Lakin, Erin Leininger, Laura Maxwell

culture shock

• The anxiety and feelings of disorientation and confusion produced when a person moves to a completely new environment. The physical and emotional discomfort one suffers when coming to live in another country or a place different from the place of origin and is unsure as to what is appropriate and what is not. Teaching Adolescent English Language Learners by Nancy Cloud, Judah Lakin, Erin Leininger, Laura Maxwell

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