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Caslon Language Education Index

A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, J, K, L, M, N, O, P, Q, R, S, T, U, V, W, X, Y, Z

balanced approach

• An approach to literacy instruction that recognizes the need for some direct instruction in reading skills but emphasizes the importance of providing such instruction in meaningful contexts to ensure that students are able to comprehend and use what they read for authentic purposes. Foundations for Teaching English Language Learners, third edition by Wayne E. Wright

balanced assessment

• The use of multiple and varied measures with input on a formative and summative basis that yield qualitative and quantitative results. Assessment and Accountability in Language Education Programs by Margo Gottlieb and Diep Nguyen

• An assessment plan that uses a variety of reliable formative and summative assessment strategies. Finding out what ELLs already know and can do is the first step. Then, ongoing classroom assessments monitor growth in literacy, academic achievement, and language proficiency. Finally, in addition to conducting standardized measures, authentic data is administered and gathered that document the ELLs’ growth over time. The system is complete when student data help district educators inform instruction and improve language education programs. Implementing Effective Instruction for English Language Learners by Suzanne Wagner and Tamara King

balanced bilingual

• Term often used to describe someone equally fluent in two languages (at the level of an educated person) (also ambilingual, equilingual, maximal bilingual, symmetrical bilingual). Foundations for Multilingualism in Education by Ester de Jong

banking model of teaching

• View of teaching that stresses the expert role of a teacher in transmitting a body of knowledge to students. Foundations for Multilingualism in Education by Ester de Jong

baseline data

• Initial collection of data regarding student academic and linguistic knowledge. Subsequent data collection measures student progress from this point. The Literacy Club: Effective Instruction and Intervention for Linguistically Diverse Learners by Kathryn Henn-Reinke and Xee Yang

basic interpersonal communication skills (BICS)

• A term coined by Jim Cumminsthat refers to the type of language proficiency that is acquired through face-to-face communication and that is necessary for social interactions, including those that occur in a classroom. This type of conversational language proficiency is both context embedded (the context makes the meaning clear) and cognitively undemanding (the concept is easily acquired). BICS or conversational language proficiency develops relatively quickly, usually within two years, provided the learner has access to English speakers (see CALP). Teaching Adolescent English Language Learners by Nancy Cloud, Judah Lakin, Erin Leininger, Laura Maxwell

• The first stage of the course of language development for English language learners/emergent bilinguals as explained by Cummins (1981). It is followed by cognitive academic language proficiency (CALP). This formulation was very helpful in alerting educators to the possibility that second language learners who sounded fluent might still struggle with many language tasks. Nonetheless, it was widely unrecognized that the BICS–CALP sequence is neither universal nor inevitable. From 2.4 (Snow) in Common Core, Bilingual and English Language Learners edited by Guadalupe Valdés, Kate Menken, and Mariana Castro

basic interpersonal communication skills (BICS)–cognitive academic language proficiency (CALP) distinction

• This distinction, stemming from the work of Jim Cummins (e.g., Cummins, 1986), is based on the notion that school language is more cognitively challenging than “basic” communication because it is decontextualized. Other scholars, (e.g., Gee, 2000), contend that all language is contextual and embedded in social relationships. From 2.8 (Wiley and Wright) in Common Core, Bilingual and English Language Learners edited by Guadalupe Valdés, Kate Menken, and Mariana Castro

BASIC model

• An acronym for Balanced Assessment and Accountability System, Inclusive and Comprehensive, a descriptive representation of the use of data in schools and language education programs by teachers and administrators for teaching, learning, and decision making that represents multiple perspectives and provides a rich portrait of students as learners. Assessment and Accountability in Language Education Programs by Margo Gottlieb and Diep Nguyen

before, during, after (BDA)

• In literacy instruction, refers to strategies used before, during, and after reading a text to maximize students’ comprehension. Also referred to as into, through, and beyond. Foundations for Teaching English Language Learners, third edition by Wayne E. Wright

bias

• Tendency toward a particular ideology, result, or preference. When applied to tests, it implies that the test systematically favors or disfavors a particular group of students on a particular criterion not considered relevant for outcomes, such as race or gender. Foundations for Multilingualism in Education by Ester de Jong

• In testing, refers to the unfair advantages or disadvantages that may be given to certain students that can affect their performance. For example, a test given in English will be biased in favor of proficient English speakers and biased against students who lack proficiency in English. Foundations for Teaching English Language Learners, third edition by Wayne E. Wright

bidirectional transfer

• The application of features of one language to another. Biliteracy from the Start by Kathy Escamilla, Susan Hopewell, Sandra Butvilofsky, Wendy Sparrow, Lucinda Soltero-González, Olivia Ruiz-Figueroa, and Manuel Escamilla

big idea(s)

• Statement, also referred to as an essential or enduring understanding, grounded in learning standards and a theme. Teaching for Biliteracy by Karen Beeman and Cheryl Urow

• Broad generalizing statements, either principles (always true) or generalizations (usually true) that are developed from the concepts embedded in core state standards. These statements of essential learning, also known as enduring understandings (Wiggins & McTighe,1998), become the focus of curriculum planning, theme development, instruction, and assessment (Gordon, 2007). Implementing Effective Instruction for English Language Learners by Suzanne Wagner and Tamara King

bi-level analysis paradigm

• An operational framework for implementing authentic assessment consisting of an initial phase of descriptive analysis of the difficulties exhibited by an English language learner, followed by a detailed explanatory analysis phase. This dual phase process requires users to describe what language difficulties are observed in the English language learner before determining why the student experiences these difficulties. Special Education Considerations for English Language Learners, second edition by Else Hamayan, Barbara Marler, Cristina Sánchez-López, and Jack Damico

bilingual-as-resource orientation

• A shield that helped teachers and administrators negotiate “top-down” reforms and protect programming for emerging bilinguals from external pressures. From 4.3 (de Jong and Gort) in Common Core, Bilingual and English Language Learners edited by Guadalupe Valdés, Kate Menken, and Mariana Castro

bilingual education

• Using two languages for instructional purposes. See also dual-language bilingual education and transitional bilingual education. The Translanguaging Classroom by Ofelia García, Susana Ibarra Johnson, and Kate Seltzer

• A well-planned educational program that uses two languages for instructional purposes. All bilingual programs in the United States aim for high levels of proficiency in English and academic achievement in English as important goals (some bilingual programs have additional goals). A program that is taught exclusively through English but that includes some primary language support is not a bilingual program (contrast English-medium program). There are several different types of bilingual education programs (see transitional bilingual education, dual language education, developmental bilingual education, two-way immersion, immersion). English Language Learners at School, second edition by Else Hamayan and Rebecca Field

• An educational program in which instruction is provided in two languages. There are three prototypical kinds of bilingual education: (1) transitional bilingual education, (2) maintenance or one-way developmental bilingual education, and (3) dual language or two-way immersion. These types of bilingual education programs differ in their target populations, goals, program structures, and anticipated outcomes. Special Education Considerations for English Language Learners, second edition by [Else Hamayan, Barbara Marler, Cristina Sánchez-López, and Jack Damico

• Providing educational content in two languages. Bilingual education can take many forms, but all of these are planned educational programs that use two languages for instructional purposes. All U.S. bilingual programs aim for eventual high English-proficiency and academic-achievement levels as important goals (some bilingual programs have additional goals). The different types of bilingual education programs usually are defined by their goals and the balance of teaching time between English and the non-English language. Compare to developmental bilingual education (DBE) program and dual language programs. Young Dual Language Learners by Karen N. Nemeth

• Any program model that uses both the students’ primary language and the target language for instructional purposes. There are multiple ways of implementing the use of the primary language instruction based on program philosophy and goals. The majority of U.S. bilingual programs are transitional bilingual education (TBE) programs that provide only one to three years of primary language instruction or support (Freeman, 2004). Late-exit bilingual programs, designed to use the primary language for five or more years, have proven to be more successful. Implementing Effective Instruction for English Language Learners by Suzanne Wagner and Tamara King

• Using two languages for instructional purposes. See also dual language bilingual education and transitional bilingual education. The Translanguaging Classroom by Ofelia García, Susana Ibarra Johnson, and Kate Seltzer

• A program that promotes the full development of two languages. A high-quality version goes beyond just leveraging the native language of students in service of better English outcomes. It provides robust context to promote the demands of content and language learning by allowing students to use all their linguistic and cultural resources, while also preparing children to function in a global society. From 1.6 (Brisk and Proctor) in Common Core, Bilingual and English Language Learners edited by Guadalupe Valdés, Kate Menken, and Mariana Castro

• Programs structured to build on students’ strengths in their home and new languages, and guide them toward the goals of content learning and biliteracy development. From 1.10 (Beeman and Urow) in Common Core, Bilingual and English Language Learners edited by Guadalupe Valdés, Kate Menken, and Mariana Castro

• A focus on coordinating instruction across environments so that what is learned in one language will aid learning in the other and is not duplicative. From 4.11 (Butvilofsky, Hopewell, and Escamilla) in Common Core, Bilingual and English Language Learners edited by Guadalupe Valdés, Kate Menken, and Mariana Castro

Bilingual Education Act

• Title VII of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act funding bilingual education at the federal level between 1968 and 2000. Foundations for Multilingualism in Education by Ester de Jong

• Added in 1968 as Title VII of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA). Before passage of the No Child Left Behind (NCLB) Act, it provided federal support for bilingual and other programs for ELLs and their families through competitive grants. Foundations for Teaching English Language Learners, third edition by Wayne E. Wright

bilingual education teacher

• A teacher who is certified as a bilingual education teacher or has a bilingual education endorsement on his or her certificate, having satisfied state requirements for language proficiency and coursework that qualify him or her to teach in a bilingual education program. This term distinguishes a teacher who has specific qualifications to teach in a specifically designated bilingual education program from a certified teacher who happens to be bilingual. Young Dual Language Learners by Karen N. Nemeth

bilingual first language acquisition

• A way to describe the language development of simultaneous bilinguals (Potowski, 2013). From 1.10 (Beeman and Urow) in Common Core, Bilingual and English Language Learners edited by Guadalupe Valdés, Kate Menken, and Mariana Castro

bilingual immersion

• Describes programs that target language minority students who are English dominant and native English speakers who desire to become bilingual. Students are initially instructed 90%–100% in the non-English target language for the first 2 years of the program. Instruction evens out gradually to 50% instruction in English and 50% in the non-English language as students move up in grade level. Foundations for Teaching English Language Learners, third edition by Wayne E. Wright

bilingual learner(s) (BLs)

• Student whose knowledge is shared across two languages. In this book, used synonymously with two-language learner. Teaching for Biliteracy by Karen Beeman and Cheryl Urow

• Children who are acquiring two or more languages at home and at school (see also emergent bilingual). Foundations for Multilingualism in Education by Ester de Jong

• A student who draws on two (or more) languages in his or her linguistic repertoire to learn. All English language learners are bilingual learners. English Language Learners at School, second edition by Else Hamayan and Rebecca Field

• Students learning in two languages, though a broad range of language skills may be represented in each language. The Literacy Club: Effective Instruction and Intervention for Linguistically Diverse Learners by Kathryn Henn-Reinke and Xee Yang

bilingual pivotal portfolio

• The cumulative collection of common formative and summative assessment information, exemplified by student original work samples designed to illustrate individual student’s progress and achievement in language proficiency, academic achievement, and cross-cultural competence from year to year, during their participation in language education programs. Assessment and Accountability in Language Education Programs by Margo Gottlieb and Diep Nguyen

bilingual program

• A program that uses two languages for instruction. In bilingual programs in the United States, English language learners receive content instruction in their native language and English as a second language instruction. There are different types of bilingual education programs, including transitional bilingual education (TBE), developmental bilingual education (DBE), and dual language or two-way immersion programs (TWI). The differences stem from the length of time students are placed in the program and how dedicated the program is to cultivating lasting knowledge and growth in the primary language. TBE programs use the native language temporarily, and the goal is to transition to English, whereas DBE programs aim to maintain the native language while developing proficiency in English. Like DBE programs, dual language or two-way immersion programs also seek to promote bilingualism, biliteracy, and biculturalism for all students enrolled. (see dual language program; see two-way immersion program). Teaching Adolescent English Language Learners by Nancy Cloud, Judah Lakin, Erin Leininger, Laura Maxwell

• Teaching academic content in two languages, generally in a native and secondary language (though some students may enter as bilinguals) with varying amounts of each language used in accordance with the program model. The Literacy Club: Effective Instruction and Intervention for Linguistically Diverse Learners by Kathryn Henn-Reinke and Xee Yang

bilingualism/multilingualism

• The ability to understand and use two (or more) languages in particular contexts and for particular purposes. Bilinguals can have the same levels of proficiency in both languages (e.g., advanced in both) or different levels of proficiency (e.g., advanced in one and beginning or intermediate in the other). Bilinguals do not necessarily have the same level of proficiency in speaking, listening, reading, and writing in the languages they know. Teaching Adolescent English Language Learners by Nancy Cloud, Judah Lakin, Erin Leininger, Laura Maxwell

• Competence in two languages developed by individual speakers (see also bilinguality) Foundations for Multilingualism in Education by Ester de Jong

• The ability to use two languages along a continuum that includes variations in proficiency in expressive (speaking and writing) and receptive (listening and reading) language; differences in proficiencies between the two languages; variations in proficiency between the two languages, according to the functions and purpose of use of each language; and proficiency of each language changes over time. Biliteracy from the Start by Kathy Escamilla, Susan Hopewell, Sandra Butvilofsky, Wendy Sparrow, Lucinda Soltero-González, Olivia Ruiz-Figueroa, and Manuel Escamilla

• The state of being able to use two or more languages. When used informally, this term may be applied to someone who easily speaks and understands two languages very well. In school settings, the term “bilingual” often has more clearly specified criteria. Knowing and using more than two languages is called multilingualism. Young Dual Language Learners by Karen N. Nemeth

• Used as a positive foundation for supporting learners’ home languages in the classroom. Enriching Practice in Linguistically and Culturally Diverse Classrooms: A Guide for Teachers and Teacher Educators by Eva Ponte, Christina Higgins

• A common human condition that involves the use of more than one language for communication. It is characteristic of the majority of the world’s population and results from the movement of peoples, including by conquest, colonization, migration, and trade. From 2.1 (Valdés) in Common Core, Bilingual and English Language Learners edited by Guadalupe Valdés, Kate Menken, and Mariana Castro

• A holistic understanding of bilingualism is grounded in the idea that what is known and understood in one language contributes to what is known and understood in the other, and that all languages contribute to a single and universally accessible linguistic and cognitive system. From 2.2 (Hopewell and Escamilla) in Common Core, Bilingual and English Language Learners edited by Guadalupe Valdés, Kate Menken, and Mariana Castro

bilinguality

• The ability to speak two languages fluently.

bilingual strategies

• Observable cross-linguistic strategies that emerging bilingual writers demonstrate as they transfer knowledge and abilities from one language to the other. Kathy Escamilla, Susan Hopewell, Sandra Butvilofsky, Wendy Sparrow, Lucinda Soltero-González, Olivia Ruiz-Figueroa, and Manuel Escamilla
• Refers to the use of translanguaging and other strategies for providing support for English language learners in their home language during language and academic content-area instruction. Foundations for Teaching English Language Learners, third edition by Wayne E. Wright

biliteracy/biliterate

• The ability to read, write, and speak in two languages for a range of communication purposes. Teaching for Biliteracy by Karen Beeman and Cheryl Urow

• The ability to read and write in two languages. Usually refers to full proficiency in both languages and the ability to read and write at age-appropriate levels in both languages. Teaching Adolescent English Language Learners by Nancy Cloud, Judah Lakin, Erin Leininger, Laura Maxwell

• The ability to read and write with high levels of proficiency in two languages through the appropriate and effective use of grammatical, syntactic, graphophonic, semantic, and pragmatic systems of the two languages. Biliteracy from the Start by [Kathy Escamilla, Susan Hopewell, Sandra Butvilofsky, Wendy Sparrow, Lucinda Soltero-González, Olivia Ruiz-Figueroa, and Manuel Escamilla

• The ability to read and write very well in two languages. Young Dual Language Learners by Karen N. Nemeth

• Ultimately, a higher and more sophisticated form of literacy than monoliteracy. As such, it ought to be our goal that all students become biliterate. From 2.2 (Hopewell and Escamilla) in Common Core, Bilingual and English Language Learners edited by Guadalupe Valdés, Kate Menken, and Mariana Castro

• An integrative view of reading, writing, listening, and speaking within and across two languages. From 4.2 (Hilliard, Mulcahy, and Yanguas) in Common Core, Bilingual and English Language Learners edited by Guadalupe Valdés, Kate Menken, and Mariana Castro

biliteracy acompañamiento

• At all times, even when students are reading or producing monolingual texts, they are using all their language resources, including the other language, to make meaning. The Translanguaging Classroom by Ofelia García, Susana Ibarra Johnson, and Kate Seltzer

biliteracy instruction

• Coordinating instruction across environments so that what is learned in one language will aid in learning the other and is not duplicative. From 4.11 (Butvilofsky, Hopewell, and Escamilla) in Common Core, Bilingual and English Language Learners edited by Guadalupe Valdés, Kate Menken, and Mariana Castro

biliteracy unit(s)

• Units that highlight the importance of purposefully connecting the four core instructional elements: reading, writing, oracy, and metalanguage using authentic Spanish literacy and literacy-based ELD. Biliteracy from the Start by Kathy Escamilla, Susan Hopewell, Sandra Butvilofsky, Wendy Sparrow, Lucinda Soltero-González, Olivia Ruiz-Figueroa, and Manuel Escamilla

biliteracy zones/biliterate reading zones

• Numeric representations that capture a holistic picture of a child’s Spanish and English reading levels. The zone represents a progressive relationship for instruction in and development of Spanish and English literacy based on Literacy Squared research findings. Each zone is comprised of an expected range of Spanish reading levels matched to an expected range of English reading levels. Biliteracy from the Start by Kathy Escamilla, Susan Hopewell, Sandra Butvilofsky, Wendy Sparrow, Lucinda Soltero-González, Olivia Ruiz-Figueroa, and Manuel Escamilla

biliterate benchmark

• A number used to represent realistic end-of-year benchmark goals for Spanish and English literacy development for grades K–5. Biliteracy from the Start by Kathy Escamilla, Susan Hopewell, Sandra Butvilofsky, Wendy Sparrow, Lucinda Soltero-González, Olivia Ruiz-Figueroa, and Manuel Escamilla

biliterate reading

• The process used to make sense of texts in two languages. It involves using a reservoir of bilingual competencies, strategies, and knowledge in interaction and collaboration with others to comprehend texts. In Literacy Squared, biliterate reading instruction in K–5 bilingual classrooms includes interactive and explicit teaching of a variety of reading skills and strategies, including: foundational reading skills (e.g., concepts of print, decoding, fluency), reading comprehension skills (e.g., describe main ideas or major events in a text and central lesson, including key supporting details; distinguish elements and structure of literary and informational texts), comprehension strategies (e.g., activate prior knowledge, make predictions, make personal and intertextual connections, cognate study), and reading of a range of text types of grade-level appropriate complexity. Children are taught how to apply these skills and strategies across languages and to see similarities and language specific differences. Biliteracy from the Start by Kathy Escamilla, Susan Hopewell, Sandra Butvilofsky, Wendy Sparrow, Lucinda Soltero-González, Olivia Ruiz-Figueroa, and Manuel Escamilla

biliterate writing

• A complex process to develop and produce texts that involves bilingual competencies, strategies, and knowledge in two languages. Biliteracy from the Start by Kathy Escamilla, Susan Hopewell, Sandra Butvilofsky, Wendy Sparrow, Lucinda Soltero-González, Olivia Ruiz-Figueroa, and Manuel Escamilla

biliterate writing potential

• The understanding of what emerging bilingual students can do in writing in both languages in order to inform writing instruction within paired literacy. Biliteracy from the Start by Kathy Escamilla, Susan Hopewell, Sandra Butvilofsky, Wendy Sparrow, Lucinda Soltero-González, Olivia Ruiz-Figueroa, and Manuel Escamilla

biliterate writing trajectory

• A framework for documenting patterns of development and growth in Spanish and English writing for emerging bilingual children who are receiving paired literacy instruction. Children’s writing achievement is expressed in terms of biliterate development rather than by grade levels or other monolingual norms that separate the two languages. It is also hypothesized that students’ Spanish writing will be ahead of their English writing; however each child’s writing development is unique. Biliteracy from the Start by Kathy Escamilla, Susan Hopewell, Sandra Butvilofsky, Wendy Sparrow, Lucinda Soltero-González, Olivia Ruiz-Figueroa, and Manuel Escamilla

Bridge, the

• The instructional moment in teaching for biliteracy when teachers bring the two languages together, guiding students to actively engage in contrastive analysis of the two languages by visually placing them side by side and to transfer the academic content they have learned in one language to the other language. Teaching for Biliteracy by Karen Beeman and Cheryl Urow

• A purposefully carved out instructional moment when the two languages are intentionally placed together. It encourages students to compare and contrast their two languages (e.g., communication–comunicación) and develop metalinguistic awareness. From 1.10 (Beeman and Urow) in Common Core, Bilingual and English Language Learners edited by Guadalupe Valdés, Kate Menken, and Mariana Castro

Bridge anchor chart

• Visual support that demonstrates similarities and differences between Spanish and English. Teaching for Biliteracy by Karen Beeman and Cheryl Urow

bridging

• Making cross-linguistic connections. Teaching for Biliteracy by Karen Beeman and Cheryl Urow

Brown v. Board of Education

• 1954 Supreme Court ruling that segregation (of African Americans) is unconstitutional, declaring that “separate educational facilities are inherently unequal.” Foundations for Multilingualism in Education by Ester de Jong

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