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Caslon Language Education Index

A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, J, K, L, M, N, O, P, Q, R, S, T, U, V, W, X, Y, Z

academic achievement

• Students’ knowledge and skills learned through the curricular content areas. Assessment and Accountability in Language Education Programs by Margo Gottlieb and Diep Nguyen

academic content standards

• Descriptions of benchmarks of student achievement in the core subject areas. Assessment and Accountability in Language Education Programs by Margo Gottlieb and Diep Nguyen

academic discourse

• General and content-specific vocabulary, specialized or complex grammatical structures, and language functions and discourse structures used by members of an academic discourse community (e.g., scientists, mathematicians, poets) to acquire new knowledge and skills, communicate about a topic, or impart information to others. Differentiating Instruction and Assessment: A Guide for K–12 Teachers, second edition by Shelley Fairbairn and Stephaney Jones-Vo

academic fluency

• The student’s ease in using academic vocabulary to comfortably speak, understand, read, and write about academic topics. Compare to conversational fluency.Young Dual Language Learners by Karen N. Nemeth

academic language

• The oral and written language used in academic texts and settings, also referred to as “formal language” or “school language.” This is the language students need to perform tasks in the content areas at grade level. It is the language students may not know but must acquire to be successful in school-based activities. Teaching for Biliteracy by Karen Beeman and Cheryl Urow

• The language used in the learning of academic subject matter in formal schooling contexts. It involves aspects of language strongly associated with literacy and academic achievement, including specific academic terms or technical language and speech registers as related to each field of study (e.g., math, science, social studies, language arts) (see register). Teaching Adolescent English Language Learners by Nancy Cloud, Judah Lakin, Erin Leininger, Laura Maxwell

• The oral and written language used for school success, which is developed primarily through reading academic texts and participating in academic discourse communities. Differentiating Instruction and Assessment: A Guide for K–12 Teachers, second edition by Shelley Fairbairn and Stephaney Jones-Vo

• The language skills needed to process and communicate knowledge and skills related to content. Assessment and Accountability in Language Education Programs by Margo Gottlieb and Diep Nguyen

• The language used for academic content learning at school; the language of academic discussion, of formal writing and the language of texts (e.g., math, language arts, science, and social studies). According to research, whereas English language learners may develop social language in one to three years, it takes five or more years for English language learners to develop sufficient abstract, discipline-specific academic language proficiency. Special Education Considerations for English Language Learners, second edition by Else Hamayan, Barbara Marler, Cristina Sánchez-López, and Jack Damico

• The language valued at school, but which needs to be recognized as a societal construction. From 2.6 (García) in Common Core, Bilingual and English Language Learners edited by Guadalupe Valdés, Kate Menken, and Mariana Castro

• A useful signal to teachers, parents, and students to indicate that the language used in school can be different from the language used in everyday communication. From 2.9 (Snow) in Common Core, Bilingual and English Language Learners edited by Guadalupe Valdés, Kate Menken, and Mariana Castro

• A helpful term for encouraging all educators of all students to focus on language as action. Vocabulary, grammar, and discourse features are used in the context of communicative activities in school and in the service of learning academic disciplines specifically. From 2.9 (Lee and Llosa) in Common Core, Bilingual and English Language Learners edited by Guadalupe Valdés, Kate Menken, and Mariana Castro

academic language proficiency

• Language features and functions associated with formal schooling, including the language for learning subject matter. Foundations for Multilingualism in Education by Ester de Jong

• The processing and use of language, including vocabulary, in social and academic settings, multiple meanings, register, pragmatics, and sociocultural nuances, as well as the quantity and quality of discourse, that help define English language learners’ position on the second language acquisition continuum. Assessment and Accountability in Language Education Programs by Margo Gottlieb and Diep Nguyen

• The type of language proficiency required to participate and achieve in content-area instruction (contrast conversational fluency). There are different varieties of academic English associated with different content areas (such as the language of science, social studies, and math). According to research, it may take at least 5 and up to 11 years for ELLs to acquire the academic English proficiency they need for academic success in U.S. schools. Cummins used the term cognitive academic language proficiency (CALP) in his earlier work to refer to this idea. English Language Learners at School, second edition by Else Hamayan and Rebecca Field

• The level of proficiency required to participate and achieve in content-area instruction, generally measured by some form of assessment. In contrast to more easily attained conversational or informal fluency, academic language proficiency may take six years or more to attain, according to James Cummins(2000). Young Dual Language Learners by Karen N. Nemeth

• The use of language in acquiring academic content in formal schooling contexts, including specialized or technical language and discourse related to each content area. Implementing Effective Instruction for English Language Learners by Suzanne Wagner and Tamara King

• Refers to the level of language proficiency students need to successfully comprehend and perform grade-level academic tasks. This term is problematic, however, because the level of proficiency needed varies widely and depends on the tasks and the language demands. Foundations for Teaching English Language Learners, third edition by Wayne E. Wright

academic language register

• the word-, sentence-, and discourse-level characteristics of English used in schools and arguably required for demonstrating academic success. Teachers might be encouraged to also leverage the everyday communicative repertoires (e.g., translating, codeswitching) of their students. From 2.7 (Bailey) in Common Core, Bilingual and English Language Learners edited by Guadalupe Valdés, Kate Menken, and Mariana Castro

accommodations

• In testing ELLs, refers to modifications in the testing environment or testing procedures, or modifications to the test instrument itself, that are intended to make up for a student’s lack of proficiency in the language of the test (e.g., providing extra time, oral interpretation of test directions or items, home-language versions of the test). Foundations for Teaching English Language Learners, third edition by Wayne E. Wright

acculturation

• The process in which a person comes in contact with a culture other than his or her own and through this interaction successfully adapts to life in the new culture. The person adopts the values, norms, and practices of the new culture as appropriate, but without denying or rejecting one’s own culture or giving up one’s primary cultural identity (see assimilation). Teaching Adolescent English Language Learners by Nancy Cloud, Judah Lakin, Erin Leininger, Laura Maxwell

• Process of adjusting to and assimilating a new culture. A stage model of cultural adaptation suggests that the individual moves from fascination with the new culture, to awareness of differences between the primary and new cultures, to increasing participation in the new culture, to culture shock (in which the clash between the two cultures becomes apparent), to emotional overload, to instrumental adaptation (the individual either retreats into home culture, gives up the home culture altogether, or adopts part of the home culture and part of the new culture), to integrative adaptation (the individual experiences either a culture split or successful integration), to structural adaptation (the individual maintains a comfortable balance between his or her native and new cultural practices). Special Education Considerations for English Language Learners, second edition by Else Hamayan, Barbara Marler, Cristina Sánchez-López, and Jack Damico

acculturation model

• Describes, interprets, explains, and predicts how the language, social, or psychological distance between a language learner’s home (e.g., Spanish, Arabic) and new language and culture (e.g., English) influences that language learner’s acquisition of the new language and culture. Differentiating Instruction and Assessment: A Guide for K–12 Teachers, second edition by Shelley Fairbairn and Stephaney Jones-Vo

acquisition planning

• A teacher self-evaluation and critical reflection tool for systematically collecting and analyzing data from his or her own classroom and using the results to improve teaching and learning. Foundations for Multilingualism in Education by Ester de Jong

action research

• A form of teacher self-evaluation and critical reflection that involves their collecting and analyzing data from their own classrooms and using the results to improve teaching and learning.Foundations for Teaching English Language Learners, third edition by Wayne E. Wright

active reading strategies

• Activities, such as say something/write something, that emphasize text-level activities rather than word-level tasks. Teaching for Biliteracy by Karen Beeman and Cheryl Urow

adapted readers’ theater (ART)

• Instructional strategy used to introduce a text students will read. The teacher orally paraphrases the text while acting out key parts and inviting students to join in as she repeats the actions. Teaching for Biliteracy by [Karen Beeman and Cheryl Urow

additive bilingualism

• Outcome of programs that support, build on, and continue to grow all the linguistic resources of sequential bilingual learners and simultaneous bilingual learners. Contrasts with subtractive bilingualism. Teaching for Biliteracy by Karen Beeman and Cheryl Urow

• A process by which individuals develop proficiency in a second language subsequent to or simultaneous with the development of proficiency in the primary language, without loss of the primary language (see subtractive bilingualism). Teaching Adolescent English Language Learners by Nancy Cloud, Judah Lakin, Erin Leininger, Laura Maxwell

• Bilingual acquisition context in which learning a second language does not imply the replacement of the first language but is added onto first language repertoires. Foundations for Multilingualism in Education by Ester de Jong

• The traditional view of bilingualism as adding one whole language to an existing whole language. The Translanguaging Classroom by Ofelia García, Susana Ibarra Johnson, and Kate Seltzer

• The process by which or context in which a second (or third or fourth) language is added without the loss of proficiency in the first language (contrast subtractive bilingualism). Our use of this term assumes a dynamic, developmental, recursive notion of bilingualism. English Language Learners at School, second edition by Else Hamayan and Rebecca Field

• The process describing the acquisition of a second language by an individual or group without loss or displacement of the first language. Additive bilingualism stands in contrast to subtractive bilingualism. Special Education Considerations for English Language Learners, second edition by Else Hamayan, Barbara Marler, Cristina Sánchez-López, and Jack Damico

• The process by which or context in which a second or additional language is learned while maintaining the first language. It is sometimes contrasted with subtractive bilingualism, wherein a student loses some of the first language while learning the second language. Young Dual Language Learners by Karen N. Nemeth

• The situation in which the acquisition of a second language is added to an individual or group’s linguistic skills without the loss or displacement of the first language ([Freeman, 2004). Educators who believe that additive bilingualism is a valuable resource develop language education programs that plan ways to use the ELL's primary language as a valuable resource for learning. In addition, they strive to maintain and improve the primary language of the ELLs while they are learning English. (See contrasting definition of subtractive bilingualism.) Implementing Effective Instruction for English Language Learners by Suzanne Wagner and Tamara King

• A situation in which a second language is eventually added to a student’s home language without replacing it. Foundations for Teaching English Language Learners, third edition by Wayne E. Wright

adequate yearly progress (AYP)

• Target of the percentage of students expected to score "proficient" on state test (part of No Child Left Behind legislation) Foundations for Multilingualism in Education by Ester de Jong

• The amount of progress a school or school district must make each year toward reaching target objectives (see Annual Measurable Achievement Objectives (AMAO)) under the federal No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 (NCLB). Determined mainly by student scores on state-wide tests. To make AYP under Title I of NCLB, increasingly higher percentages of students in each subgroup in each tested grade level must pass the state tests each year. To make AYP under Title III, increasingly higher percentages of ELLs must make progress in learning English, attain English proficiency, and also make AYP under Title I. Foundations for Teaching English Language Learners, third edition by Wayne E. Wright

advancing bilingual strand

• A recommended strand of the Literacy Club that is focused on students who have well-developed oral communication skills in Spanish but who struggle with literacy development. The Literacy Club: Effective Instruction and Intervention for Linguistically Diverse Learners by Kathryn Henn-Reinke and Xee Yang

advocacy

• Organized efforts and actions to create a just, decent society. Foundations for Multilingualism in Education by Ester de Jong

• Going beyond daily teaching responsibilities to support causes and work for changes to ensure the equitable treatment of ELLs within the school, district, state, and country and to ensure that their unique linguistic, academic, and cultural needs are being fully addressed. Foundations for Teaching English Language Learners, third edition by Wayne E. Wright

advocacy-based program evaluations

• Program evaluations that set out to prove that one program model is better than the other. Foundations for Multilingualism in Education by Ester de Jong

affective filter

• A kind of mental barrier that can block language that would be otherwise understood from reaching the part of the brain that processes language. Factors that can raise the filter and block input include fatigue, distraction, anxiety, and being in a state of culture shock (see culture shock).Teaching Adolescent English Language Learners by Nancy Cloud, Judah Lakin, Erin Leininger, Laura Maxwell

• Introduced by Krashen (1982) to account for the influence of affective factors such as motivation, self-confidence, and anxiety on second language acquisition. Differentiating Instruction and Assessment: A Guide for K–12 Teachers, second edition by Shelley Fairbairn and Stephaney Jones-Vo

• Refers to factors, such as fear, anxiety, shyness, and lack of motivation that can block comprehensible input and thus prevent second language acquisition. Lowering the affective filter allows learners to receive more comprehensible input and thus enables them to acquire more of the second language. Foundations for Teaching English Language Learners, third edition by Wayne E. Wright

alignment

• The degree of correspondence between two entities, such as the extent of match between standards and assessment or between two assessments. Assessment and Accountability in Language Education Programs by Margo Gottlieb and Diep Nguyen

alternative assessment

• Assessment procedures and techniques that occur as an outgrowth of instruction and that show a student’s growth over time. Alternative assessments measure what students can produce rather than what they can recall or reproduce. Alternative assessments include, but are not limited to, student-teacher conferences, work samples evaluated by rubrics, and classroom performance (see authentic assessment).Teaching Adolescent English Language Learners by Nancy Cloud, Judah Lakin, Erin Leininger, Laura Maxwell

ambilingual

• A reference to someone who has virtually equal command of two languages. (also balanced bilingual, equilingual, maximal bilingual, symmetrical bilingual). Foundations for Multilingualism in Education by Ester de Jong

Amendment 31

• Colorado ballot initiative defeated by voters in 2001 that would have made English-only the default program for ELLs in the state. Foundations for Multilingualism in Education by Ester de Jong

Americanization movement

• Efforts that focused on helping immigrants learn English and become “American” in cultural practice; the emphasis was on assimilation. Foundations for Multilingualism in Education by Ester de Jong

analytic reading approaches

• A meaning-focused method to teach reading that starts with the reading of whole texts and words. The method then breaks down sentences to words and words into syllables and letters. The point of departure for teaching children to read is first to read for meaning, as well as to learn to decode. Biliteracy from the Start by Kathy Escamilla, Susan Hopewell, Sandra Butvilofsky, Wendy Sparrow, Lucinda Soltero-González, Olivia Ruiz-Figueroa, and Manuel Escamilla

analytic scoring

• A form of assessment that focuses on several aspects of a student’s performance, normally guided by a rubric that includes separate analytic scales. For example, a rubric to assess student writing may contain separate analytic scales for composing, style, sentence formation, usage, and mechanics. Foundations for Teaching English Language Learners, third edition by Wayne E. Wright

anchor chart(s)

• Visual support that organizes information for students. In this book, the term refers to information related to Spanish in the United States (such as comparing informal language and formal language). See also Bridge anchor chart. Teaching for Biliteracy by Karen Beeman and Cheryl Urow

• These are used to record and display student thinking, key concepts, and essential skills, which help students to see the connections across literacy environments. They are a stable reference that students can return to when in need of clarification. Biliteracy from the Start by Biliteracy from the Start by Kathy Escamilla, Susan Hopewell, Sandra Butvilofsky, Wendy Sparrow, Lucinda Soltero-González, Olivia Ruiz-Figueroa, and Manuel Escamilla

anglocentricity

• View that English and British culture is superior to non-English languages and cultures. Foundations for Multilingualism in Education by Ester de Jong

annual measurable achievement objectives (AMAO)

• Annual targets related to the number of ELLs making progress on a language proficiency test, for ELLs being proficient on the language proficiency test, and the percentage of ELLs meeting annual yearly progress. Foundations for Multilingualism in Education by Ester de Jong

• Targets set by each state, as required by the federal No Child Left Behind Act of 2001. These indicate the percentage of students at each grade level expected to pass each state test under Title I, and the percentage of ELLs expected to make progress in learning English and attain English proficiency under Title III. Foundations for Teaching English Language Learners, third edition by Wayne E. Wright

apprenticeship

• A key metaphor in the language acquisition/development process. Just as an apprentice carpenter, for example, does not learn the trade simply by reading about carpentry, emergent bilingual learners of English acquire the language by participating in real-life language and literacy activities that both support and stretch their proficiencies in English. From 2.4 (Kibler) in Common Core, Bilingual and English Language Learners edited by Guadalupe Valdés, Kate Menken, and Mariana Castro

appropriation

• The adoption of a concept or behavior with a local interpretation. Foundations for Multilingualism in Education by Ester de Jong

approximation

• An approximation is a more positive term used in place of misspellings, miscues, or errors. It is not an exact representation but it is close enough to be useful. Biliteracy from the Start by Kathy Escamilla, Susan Hopewell, Sandra Butvilofsky, Wendy Sparrow, Lucinda Soltero-González, Olivia Ruiz-Figueroa, and Manuel Escamilla

arcaísmos españoles (archaic forms of Spanish)

• Spanish terms that can be traced back 500 years and that continue to be used today in certain areas of the Spanish-speaking world. Formerly a prestigious form of Spanish that has become less prestigious and is often associated with Spanish-speaking students from rural areas.Teaching for Biliteracy by Karen Beeman and Cheryl Urow

así se dice

• Bridge strategy for students at about 3rd grade or higher. Students generate a statement or big idea in one language about what they have learned and then paraphrase it in the other language. This strategy allows the contrastive analysis between Spanish and English to include word choice, punctuation, syntax and grammar, and cultural norms. Teaching for Biliteracy by [Karen Beeman and Cheryl Urow

• This is a cross-language strategy that we developed to validate translation as a constructive and worthwhile endeavor that engages students in a complex, sophisticated scrutiny of language and emphasizes the subtleties and nuances of communicating messages across cultures and languages. Biliteracy from the Start by Biliteracy from the Start by Kathy Escamilla, Susan Hopewell, Sandra Butvilofsky, Wendy Sparrow, Lucinda Soltero-González, Olivia Ruiz-Figueroa, and Manuel Escamilla

• A learning activity designed by Literacy Squared where students work in pairs to translate and interpret short passages from one language to another. Students learn about complexities and subtleties across two languages. The Literacy Club: Effective Instruction and Intervention for Linguistically Diverse Learners by Kathryn Henn-Reinke and Xee Yang

Assessing Comprehension and Communication in English State-to-State (ACCESS) test

• A large-scale language assessment designed by WIDA for use with K–12 English learners/emerging bilinguals. The Literacy Club: Effective Instruction and Intervention for Linguistically Diverse Learners by Kathryn Henn-Reinke and Xee Yang

assessment

• The systematic planning, collecting, analyzing, and reporting of student data from a variety of sources over multiple points in time. Assessment and Accountability in Language Education Programs by Margo Gottlieb and Diep Nguyen

• The process of collecting and analyzing a wide variety of data from students that provides evidence of their learning and growth over an extended period. Foundations for Teaching English Language Learners, third edition by Wayne E. Wright

assessment frameworks

• Ways of conceptualizing how to gather, display, and use contextual information and student assessment data for educational decision making. Assessment and Accountability in Language Education Programs by Margo Gottlieb and Diep Nguyen

assimilation

• The process by which a person fully adopts the values, norms, and practices of the new culture and relinquishes his or her home culture. The process may create adjustment problems for individuals if they deny or reject their original cultural identity and their home language in the process (see acculturation). Teaching Adolescent English Language Learners by Nancy Cloud, Judah Lakin, Erin Leininger, Laura Maxwell

• The process of giving up nondominant languages and cultural practices for increasingly exclusive participation in dominant linguistic and cultural practices. Foundations for Multilingualism in Education by Ester de Jong

assimilationist discourses

• Ways of thinking and talking about the world that views (too much) linguistic and cultural diversity as a hindrance to sociocultural, economic, and political development. Foundations for Multilingualism in Education by Ester de Jong

• Discourses that devalue ELLs' home languages and cultures, seeing them as problems to overcome (also called monolingual discourses). Foundations for Teaching English Language Learners, third edition by Wayne E. Wright

authentic assessment

• The multiple forms of assessment that evaluate students’ learning and their attitudes and approaches toward learning during instructionally relevant activities—for example, using a rubric to assess students’ language use during a social studies lesson. Authentic assessment reflects good instructional practices and the kinds of skills and knowledge useful to students in performing daily life and school activities.Teaching Adolescent English Language Learners by Nancy Cloud, Judah Lakin, Erin Leininger, Laura Maxwell
• Examination of data systematically collected in educational programs determined by consensus of constituents involved in the decision-making process. Assessment and Accountability in Language Education Programs by Margo Gottlieb and Diep Nguyen

• Performance-based assessment of what students know and can do with content and language during actual tasks in real-life contexts. Authentic assessments often stand in contrast to norm-referenced standardized tests. Special Education Considerations for English Language Learners, second edition by Else Hamayan, Barbara Marler, Cristina Sánchez-López, and Jack Damico

authentic Spanish literacy instruction

• Approaches to teaching reading and writing in Spanish that are grounded in the internal structure of Spanish and in Central and South American methods, as opposed to translated instructional models designed for monolingual English speakers. Equal amounts of instructional time during Spanish literacy are devoted to oracy, reading, writing, and metalanguage. It incorporates culturally and personally relevant texts that, to the extent possible, are originally written in Spanish, as well as Spanish-English bilingual texts. Biliteracy from the Start by Kathy Escamilla, Susan Hopewell, Sandra Butvilofsky, Wendy Sparrow, Lucinda Soltero-González, Olivia Ruiz-Figueroa, and Manuel Escamilla

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